In 2005, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita both caused devastating damage in southern Louisiana. In 2012, coastal wetlands reduced inundation levels and thus prevented an estimated $625 million in direct flood damages from Hurricane Sandy in the northeastern United States 15. Salt marshes have long been lauded for their coastal protection ecosystem services, in which marsh vegetation and elevation reduce storm wave heights and surge 13, 14. Understanding how marshes are impacted by major storms is imperative to understanding system-wide coastal resistance and resilience. Wave action and inundation can also cause significant vegetation loss 9, edge erosion 10, 11, and other marsh degradation, including pond formation 12. Storms can be a major source of sediment deposition, which in turn increases marsh elevation and resilience to sea-level rise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Hurricanes and other intense storms impact marshes in a variety of different ways. These results directly inform policy and practice for hazard mitigation, disaster recovery, adaptation, and conservation, particularly given the potential for more intense hurricane landfalls as the climate changes. Marsh management mattered for resistance and resilience marshes on publicly-managed lands were less likely to be damaged and more likely to recover quickly from storm impacts than marshes on private land, emphasizing the need to incentivize marsh management on private lands. Marshes may be more resistant than resilient to storm impacts damaged marshes were slow to recover, and only 16% of damaged marshes had recovered 6 months after landfall. The marshes were highly resistant to storm damages even under extreme conditions only 2% of the 173,259 km 2 of marshes in the study area were damaged-a failure rate much lower than that of artificial defenses. Marsh damage was classified into several categories, including deposition of sediment or wrack, fallen trees, vegetation loss, and conversion to open water. This study uses high-resolution aerial imagery to quantify the impacts of Hurricane Michael, a category 5 hurricane, on coastal salt marshes in the Florida Panhandle, USA. Characterizing the fragility, resistance, and resilience of marshes is critical for understanding their role in reducing storm damages and for helping to manage the recovery of these natural defenses.

Michael hurricane track